| Manager's House - Geneva Estate |
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| Now occupied by GTEC |
| The back yard of former estate house at Mitchum |
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| Jean Rhys visited this house as a teenager |
Geneva Heritage Research Project 2011
For more than two centuries Grandbayrians have labored on
the plantation known as Geneva Estate, which operated until the mid-1970’s. In 2011, the Geneva Heritage
Project began collecting data in order to interpret the history of Geneva Estate through the use of archival sources, oral
history, and archaeological excavations. With a grant awarded to the Grand Bay Village Council by the Public
Affairs Section of the U.S. Embassy of Barbados and the Eastern Caribbean, Project Director Dr. Steve Lenik worked with members
of the Grand Bay Tourism and Environmental Committee (GTEC) and students from St. Mary’s College of Maryland (U.S.A.)
to survey Geneva Estate. This summary reviews some of the findings of this project, which intends to interpret
and to share Grand Bay’s heritage with Dominicans and tourists alike.
Geneva Estate: Historical Background Geneva
Estate was founded after Dominica became a British colony in 1763, but Grand Bay’s landscape was shaped by earlier settlements.
The area’s first inhabitants were the indigenous Kalinago, who appear to have departed Grand Bay soon after 1691,
when a settler named Jeannot Rolle and his enslaved laborers built a small estate and erected a stone cross on the coast in
1692. Then in 1747 French Jesuits from Martinique built a plantation and church in Grand Bay, which lasted
until 1763 when the Jesuits were forced to leave.
With the start of the British colonial period, lands in Dominica were sold to new settlers or leased to the French
families already living in the island. The precise origins of the plantation are not clear but by the late
eighteenth century it had been named Geneva Estate by the Bertrand family. This is evident in records resulting
from an uprising by enslaved Africans in Dominica in 1791, led by a free person of color named Polinaire. This
rebellion included enslaved laborers from Geneva. A Deed book from 1823 suggests that Geneva was composed
of Mitcham, Galton, Hagley Park, and Douglas Hall Estates, which had been combined by the 1820’s when the plantation
was acquired by the Lockhart family. Following Emancipation the colonial Government ordered census to be
conducted, and rumors of re-enslavement, though not based in fact, incited the ‘Census Riots’ of 1844, in which
laborers of Geneva Estate participated. In
the nineteenth century the Lockhart family lived at Geneva Estate’s main house, known as Mitcham House.
Dominica-born writer Jean Rhys visited Mitcham as a child, as her mother was a Lockhart, and her memories of Mitcham
influenced some of her writings. On October 19, 1932, a fire destroyed Mitcham House. With
his home and possessions destroyed, Norman Lockhart petitioned the Government for repayment. This caused
some controversy, as funds for compensation were scarce and the cause of the fire was not determined. The
estate house would be rebuilt uphill closer to Lallay. In 1949, Elias Nassief purchased Geneva Estate.
Many Grandbayrians recall the ‘Revolution’ of 1974 in which a conflict with the owners of Geneva Estate
and the police led to the estate’s lands being seized and sold by the Government of Dominica. But
the events of 1974 are only one episode in a series of uprisings related to rivalries over land and power. In
some ways the redistribution of Geneva Estate’s lands resolved these conflicts, and today Geneva Estate’s lands
are scattered with homes, community buildings, gardens, and the 4.06-acre Geneva Heritage Park, which is leased from the Government
by the Grand Bay Tourism and Environmental Committee (GTEC).
The Geneva Heritage Project Over
five weeks in May and June, 2011, a grant from the Public Affairs section of the U.S. Embassy of Barbados and the Eastern
Caribbean supported the Geneva Heritage Project. Members of GTEC and students from St. Mary’s College
of Maryland recorded 22 buildings. These structures reflect a mix of architectural styles, as the plantation
has seen multiple phases of construction from the late eighteenth century to the twentieth century. The
industrial facilities show the variety of crops produced at Geneva, including sugar, cacao, coconut, coffee, vanilla, bay
oil, and citrus. Archaeological excavations
were designed to determine the dates of occupation and the types of material culture which were present on Geneva Estate.
Excavations targeted three areas. First, archaeological findings show that the former
overseer’s or manager’s house, currently GTEC’s office, has been in use since at least the early nineteenth
century. Second, the cut stone and mortar building east of the manager’s house was used as an office
when the Nassief’s owned Geneva, and Grandbayrians who once worked at Geneva Estate know it as the site of “pay
day” on Fridays. The construction methods and artifacts indicate a late eighteenth century date.
Third, excavations along the foundation of Mitcham House, currently a privately owned property, reveal burned ceramic
and glass objects probably dating to the fire in 1932. Post holes along the foundation suggest an earlier
structure. Future research may reveal evidence of the house sites where Geneva Estate’s laborers
lived, and the objects used during daily life such as ceramic vessels, utensils, and other personal possessions.
The Embassy grant also funded the construction and installation of ten interpretative signs. Under
the direction of GTEC, these signs are installed in significant locations around Geneva Estate. These signs
display the history of Grand Bay to local residents as well as to tourists who visit the area, as Geneva Estate has much potential
as a heritage tourism site. The Embassy funds also provided for the printing of documents related to the
history of Grand Bay, copies of which are available to the public at the Public Library and at GTEC’s office. Steve Lenik,
PhD October, 2011
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Historical Archaeology at an Eighteenth Century
Jesuit Property in Grand Bay
Some Grandbayrians may be aware of the stone cross of Jeannot Rolle, a free
settler of color from Martinique. But the Jesuit missionaries who were in Grand
Bay from 1747 until 1763 because of Rolle are not as well-known in the region’s history.
In 2007 and 2008, archaeological excavations uncovered two plantation buildings and one of Dominica’s first parish
churches, both of which were part of the Jesuit property during the mid-eighteenth century.
In the late 17th century Dominica was a neutral island inhabited
by a number of people including the native Carib, African maroons, and French-speaking settlers and their enslaved laborers. One of these settlers was Jeannot Rolle, who in 1691 crossed over from Martinique
to settle in Grand Bay, a region that was already settled by Caribs. Conflicts
arose between Rolle and the Carib, and in response Rolle had his enslaved laborers cut a cross from local stone and placed
on the coast (Figure 1). According to the story, this cross caused the Carib
to leave the area and soon came to signify the Catholic faith of Rolle and other settlers.
But there was neither a priest nor a parish, and Rolle requested a priest from Martinique, the island-colony to the
south (Boromé 1967; Gordon 1942:77-80; Honychurch 1995:56-58; Moris 1926).
| The stone cross sits in the Catholic cemetery |
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| Fig. 1 |
Responding to Rolle’s request in 1747 was Father Antoine La Valette. He was a Jesuit, or a member of the Society of Jesus, who was financial manager of
the French Jesuit mission in St. Pierre, Martinique. La Valette was faced with
the task of repaying the Martinique mission’s debts. While visiting Dominica
to bless Rolle’s cross, La Valette was interested in the spiritual needs of the settlers, but he also used this occasion
to acquire land in Grand Bay to build a plantation to earn income for repaying debts.
This action tested longstanding agreements among Britain, France, and the Carib which deemed Dominica a neutral island
to be inhabited by Caribs but not Europeans. La Valette oversaw the construction
of a plantation and a parish church in Grand Bay, and he bought hundreds of enslaved Africans in Barbados. The plantation, which became known as Les Jésuites, produced manioc, coffee, and other cash crops for export
to Europe. A parish church was also built and consecrated in 1749 (Boromé 1967;
Honychurch 1995:56-58; Moris 1926). A portion of the Grand Bay parish register
published in the Dominica Ecclesiastical Bulletin (Proesmans 1943) lists the slaves of the Jesuit as well as other free and
enslaved people who were served by this parish.
The Jesuit plantation and parish in Grand Bay functioned from the late 1740’s,
but problems started in 1755 when a shipment of tropical products meant to pay Jesuit debts in Europe was captured at sea. This caused the bankruptcy of one of La Valette’s major lenders in Marseilles,
which in turn led to lawsuits as creditors sought repayment. La Valette’s
activities were exposed, as it appeared that he had violated rules prohibiting commerce and the lands in Dominica violated
neutrality treaties. Eventually these cases were brought before the Paris parlement,
which ruled that the entire Society of Jesus was responsible for repaying over 6.2 million livres in debt. Unable to pay the full amount, the French Society of Jesus was dissolved in 1764. This was part of a world-wide Suppression of the Jesuits culminating in the dissolution of the Society
in 1773 (Boromé 1967; Honychurch 1995:56-58; Thompson 1976, 1996). Consequently,
the Jesuits abandoned their lands in Dominica, and to repay creditors the Grand Bay property was sold as the British colonized
the island. In this manner Dominica, and specifically Grand Bay, had worldwide
repercussions as the plantation founded there set in motion a series events that culminated in the destruction of the Society
of Jesus.
With the departure of the Jesuits in the early 1760’s, the stone cross
was a constant reminder which preserved the memory of Jeannot Rolle in local oral history.
But remembrance of the former Jesuit presence faded. Physical traces of
the church, plantation, and slave village gradually disappeared. Centers of activity
in Grand Bay shifted to places like Geneva Estate and Lallay, and the stone cross was moved to the Grand Bay parish cemetery
in 1892. Maps in British archives illustrate the Jesuit site, and history books
about La Valette and the French Jesuits often mention the lands in Dominica (for example, Honychurch 1995:56-58; Thompson
1976, 1996). But the exact location of the Jesuit site was not known until 2001,
when historian Dr. Lennox Honychurch visited Grand Bay during construction of Pierre Charles Boulevard. Dr. Honychurch saw the outlines of three buildings and scattered pieces of ceramic tile near the coast. Even though a bulldozer disturbed the upper soil layers, this archaeological evidence
showed that some of the Jesuit property remained.
In 2007 and 2008, Steve Lenik, a graduate student in historical archaeology
at Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York, led a small team of Dominican and American field assistants in completing archaeological
excavations at the site in Grand Bay. Specialists in historical archaeology use
historic documents as well as excavations to learn about the past. Archaeologists
excavate with hand trowels, brushes, and dustpans to collect the earth and to reveal the stones from the buildings (Figure
3). At times shovels are used to scrape off surface layers, but the approach
is to excavate carefully in order to note changes in soil color and to collect artifacts.
Many photographs and notes are taken to preserve a record of the work. Soil
is collected and screened to collect artifacts such as broken pieces of pottery, glass, tobacco pipes, and clay tile. Artifacts are then washed and analyzed by archaeologists who need to consult many
sources to identify the objects.
| West wall of plantation building |
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| Fig 2 |
For his dissertation Lenik excavated to trace the edges of the three buildings
and did historical research to learn more about the Jesuits. This work uncovered
the spatial organization of the first large plantation in Dominica, which was built using foreign investment in the funds
available to the Society of Jesus. The parish church was placed in a flat area
close to Jeannot Rolle’s cross on the coast, while the plantation was inland and behind the religious structures. A social network of Catholic settlers in the region was created as many attended the
church (Lenik 2010). The Grand Bay site also provides details about daily life
during the period before Dominica became a colony in 1763. Some excavations encountered
undisturbed soil layers that date to a narrow period of time from the 1740’s to the 1760’s. Archaeology reveals some the material things used by people at the site.
Fragments of clay pots with decorations and vessel forms that are associated with the Carib suggest that there continued
to be relationships with the Carib. The presence of clay griddles shows that
these vessels were used to cook cassava bread in the distinctive Amerindian fashion (Figure 3). At the same time pottery made in France was in use at this part of the site (Figure 4). Glass bottles and beads made in Europe were also found (Lenik 2010).
| French pottery pieces found on the site |
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| Fig 4 |
| Carib pottery pieces found on the site |
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| Fig 3 |
Archaeology has contributed to situating the worldwide significance of Grand
Bay during the colonial period, as it was this site that began a series of events causing the downfall of the Jesuits. This research has also shown the potential for future research in Grand Bay and all
of Dominica, an island which has only recently begun to be studied by archaeologists.
-- Steve Lenik, PhD.
June 2010
This work would not have been possible without the assistance of the Grand
Bay Village Council, the Grand Bay Catholic Church, and the people of Grand Bay.
Further reading about the Jesuits in Grand Bay
Boromé,
Joseph
1967 The French and Dominica, 1699-1763. Jamaican Historical
Review 7(1/2):9-39.
Gordon, Helen Cameron
1942 West Indian Scenes. Robert Hale Ltd., London.
Honychurch,
Lennox
1995 The Dominica Story: A History of the Island. MacMillan
Education Ltd., London.
Lenik,
Steve
2010 Frontier Landscapes,
Missions, and Power: A French Jesuit Plantation and Church at Grand Bay, Dominica (1747-1763). Ph.D. dissertation,
Syracuse University.
Moris, Bishop James C.
1926a Short History of the Diocese: Parish of St. Patrick, Grand Bay. Diocese of Roseau Ecclesiastical
Bulletin XIX(7-11).
Proesmans, Father R.
1943a The Slaves of the French Were Also Catholic and French.
The Dominica Chronicle XXV(83-85).
Thompson, D. Gillian
1996 The Lavalette Affair and the Jesuit Superiors. French History 10(2):206-239.
1976 The Fate of the French Jesuits' Creditors under the Ancien Régime. The
English Historical Review 91(359):255-277.
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Remembering Our Past
Building Our Future
| Geneva Estate Heritage Site |
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| Craft shop and Coal pot |
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